Facts about the Death Penalty Literature review

Facts about the Death Penalty - Literature review Example There are those who believe that the process is biased and must be curtailed until these issues can be examined, however, I would argue that despite any bias in the application of the death penalty, most of the criminals currently sitting on death row are guilty of the crimes they committed and should see their sentence through to its fruition. Those seeking to abolish the death penalty in this country point believe that the problem of racial bias exists within its administration. The most famous statistical study conducted regarding racial bias in death penalty assessment was the 1970s Baldus study. A professor at the University of Iowa Law School, David Baldus "tried to assess the influence of race and other illegitimate factors on the selection of murder suspects for death sentences" (Howe 2085). The results of the study indicated that if a murder victim was white, the rate to which the offender was sentenced to death was much higher than if the victim was black (2085). In a more recent study, commissioned in 2000 by the former governor of Maryland, capital sentencing in that state between 1978 and 1999 was examined. The study found "pronounced bias against killers of white victims, and within the white-victim cases, additional bias against black offenders" (2090).

Bank of England Quantitative Easing(Benefits and consequences) Dissertation

Bank of England Quantitative Easing(Benefits and consequences) - Dissertation Example On the other hand, such a reaction may be just what the UK and US need in order to prevent a deflationary spiral as a result of the financial crisis. If the first round had no detrimental effects, the question remains as to how far is right, because a second round may go further into creating inflationary pressures than expected. The purpose of this paper is to examine whether or not QE could be a viable means of implementing monetary policy to address the present financial morass. Findings arrived at are tentative, because of the relatively short time the quantitative easing policy has been implemented, which spans only about two years for both the US and the UK. For Japan, on the other hand, while QE was implemented for a full five years, the results are inapplicable to the present situation because QE was meant to address Japan’s negative inflation rate already registering for several years, which is entirely different from the threat posed by the present crisis on UK and t he US. Acknowledgment Table of Contents Title Page 1 Abstract 2 Acknowledgement 3 Table of Contents 4 Chapter 1: Introduction 6 1.1 Background of the research topic 6 1.2 Objectives of the study 7 1.3 Research question and subquestions 8 1.4 Scope and limitations of the study 8 1.5 Ethical considerations 9 Chapter 2: Review of related literature 10 2.1 Background of quantitative easing 10 2.2 Quantitative easing as implemented in the UK 12 2.3 Viewpoint of the sceptics 19 2.4 Viewpoint of the enthusiasts 21 2.5 Modest impact assessment 22 2.6 Other Econometric Studies 23 Chapter 3: Methodology 24 3.1 Research strategy 24 3.2 Data description 24 3.3 Data gathering methodology 24 3.4 Analysis of data 25 3.5 Limitations of data and analysis 25 Chapter 4: Case study – US and Japan 27 4.1 Quantitative easing in Japan 27 4.2 Quantitative easing in the United States 33 4.3 Comparison among the US, UK and Japanese QE 38 Chapter 5: Results, analysis and discussion 40 5.1 Analysis of v ariance with log of monetary base and log of long-term interest rate as variables 40 5.2 Analysis of variance with monetary base and long-term interest rate as variables 43 Chapter 6: Conclusion 46 6.1 Summary of the dissertation 46 6.2 Findings of the study: answers to the subquestions 46 6.3 Conclusion: answer to the research objective 47 6.4 Recommendations for future research 48 References 49 Appendices 53 Chapter 1 Introduction 1. 1 Background of the research topic Quantitative easing is a process which the central banks often consider as a last resort to inject liquidity in an economy, without caring for its own quantity of reserve assets (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development 72). Often banks opt to buy off all government securities in circulation in the open market in their aggression, without preferring to fix any target rate of retaining their money reserves (Baumol & Blinder 271; Marta & Brusuelas, â€Å"Quantitative Easing†). Such an unorthodox st rategy, as quantitative easing, helped to bail out economies like Japan at a time when it was undergoing its worst phase of liquidity crunch. The method helped the nation to revive from its plight through enhancing its monetary base significantly, though meanwhile the government had to face immense deficits in their budgets (Organisation

Immorality of Excessive Gambling Essay Example for Free

Immorality of Excessive Gambling Essay Excessive gambling is immoral because it causes people to exhaust their resources on an activity with uncertain results which can result to bigger problems in the end. Those who gamble should practice moderation in their ways so that they will be able to avoid the possibilities of gambling dependency on one’s future and of drying-up one’s financial resources just to satisfy an earthly pleasure. Instead of going to casinos and playing card games on a regular basis, people should only do so as a pastime so that they can a lot most of their time to more rewarding activities that are certain to compensate for their efforts. If a person gambles too much, the tendency of the individual is to use most—if not all—of his financial resources just to satisfy his desire to gamble (Kusyszyn, 1984). An excessive gambler does not mind if the odds of winning are small compared to the odds of losing. Moreover, an excessive gambler no longer minds if the money he has gambled has already reached to amounts that are already way beyond the ordinary. The excessive gambler, therefore, is so devoted to spending a luxurious amount in the hopes of winning his bet which, if he did win, he will then again use to gamble. While the case of an excessive gambler is not always beyond repair, the damages that his deeds can inflict not only to himself but also to his family can certainly alter the course of their lives for the worse, if not the worst. For one, financial debt can never be far behind because an excessive gambler will find ways just to fuel his addiction—including loans either from lending institutions or other people. This will certainly affect the financial security of himself and of his family. Another thing is that excessive gambling can lead to loss of time for work and for the family. If the excessive gambler losses time for his work, there is a great chance that he will be losing his job which can cut-off his or his family’s source of income. The loss of time for the family is also negative consequence because it causes family members to lose emotional bond. If the gambler is a father, there is the risk that his children will no longer see him as a fatherly figure or, probably worse, they may reach the point where they will no longer miss his presence in the household while he is out in the casinos gambling. More importantly, excessive gambling is immoral because it takes away the opportunity for families to develop and grow in many ways. Instead of spending the money on gambling, the money could have been better spent on household furniture, on paying monthly bills, family vacation and other things that could have brought the family closer together. The latter options are certainly the better options to take instead of gambling too much. The omission of these good options in exchange for the worse option is certainly not a moral thing to do when the person could have just chosen the option that was primarily beneficial to everybody in the household and its future. From a utilitarian perspective, disregarding the option that maximizes benefits to the most number of individuals concerned is not the moral thing to do (Freeman, 1994). Thus, excessive gambling is immoral from a utilitarian standpoint. Aristotle’s philosophy of moderation suggests that human beings should avoid the extremes because the excess and the deficiency of anything are vices whereas the moderation of it is considered to be a virtue (Yu, 1998). The same principle can be applied to contemporary gambling. For example, an individual’s deficiency of playing slot machines in casinos or anywhere else where there ways to gamble is considered as a vice. On the other hand, spending too much time, attention and resources on playing poker in a Las Vegas casino is also considered to be a vice. The best option that should be taken is a moderate gambling practice because, according to Aristotle, the moderate way is the virtuous way which can lead to the good life. Instead of going regularly to casinos or spending more time in the race track than in the household, the excessive gambler should practice moderating his addiction. He can instead cut the time and money he is spending on his vices and devote more of them to his family. He can also choose to work harder in the office or spend more time with his children so that he will have less time for gambling. The bright side to that is that he becomes less of a person addicted to gambling while being more of a normal person at the same time. The point is not to siphon all of your time, resources and attention to gambling as it deprives you of some of life’s better activities. It does not mean, however, that the person should altogether abandon gambling. The thing is that gambling can still be a part of a person’s life, only that this time around gambling is no longer an addiction but rather a leisurely activity spent for pastime. In fact, moderate gambling can be a source of emotional bond for family members especially for the adult parents. For instance, a couple can decide to go on vacation in Las Vegas and spend a bit of time and money in a casino where they can play together for fun. If they lose, not much is lost because the primary goal was to establish more emotional bond together. If they win, however, their financial winnings can be considered as mere ‘bonuses’ to their primary intent. This perhaps best explains why gambling can also be a good deed so long as it is within moderate limits. It is easy to see and understand why excessive gambling is immoral. For the most part, it is a menace that tears down family bond and deprives people of spending their lives on better activities. Although excessive gambling is immoral, the moderation of gambling can still be considered as a good thing for it can also bring families closer together. References Freeman, S. (1994). Utilitarianism, Deontology, and the Priority of Right Utilitarianism, Deontology, and the Priority of Right. Philosophy and Public Affairs, 23(4), 313-349. Kusyszyn, I. (1984). The Psychology of Gambling. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 474, 133-145. Yu, J. (1998). Virtue: Confucius and Aristotle. Philosophy East and West, 48(2), 323-347.

Source Of Errors In Learning English Language Essay

Source Of Errors In Learning English Language Essay Introduction Errors are integral part of language acquisition. The phenomenon of error has long interested SLA researchers. In a traditional second language teaching situation, they are regarded as the linguistic phenomena deviant from the language rules and standard usages, reflecting learners deficiency in language competence and acquisition device. Many teachers simply correct individual errors as they occur, with little attempt to see patterns of errors or to seek causes in anything other than learner ignorance. Presently, however, with the development of linguistics, applied linguists, psychology and other relevant subjects, peoples attitude toward errors changed greatly. Instead of being problem to be overcome or evils to be eradicated, errors are believed to be evidence of the learners stages in their target language (TL) development. It is through analyzing learner errors that errors are elevated from the statue of undesirability to that of a guide to the inner working of the language lea rning process (Ellis, 1985,p 53) In the field of SLA, there have been three influential approaches to errors with a general movement from approaches emphasizing the product, the error itself, to approaches focusing on the underlying process under which the errors are made. The analysis of error sources has been regarded as a central aspect in the study of learner errors. Researchers believe that the clearer the understanding of the sources of learners errors, the better second language teachers will be able to detect the process of L2 learning. Error Making errors is the most natural thing in the world and it is evidently attached to the human beings. But, how do we define error? There are different definitions of the word as Ellis explains learners make errors in both comprehension and production, the first being rather scantly investigated. All learners make errors which have a different name according to the group committing the error. Childrens errors have been seen as transitional forms, the native speakers ones are called slips of the tongue and the second language errors are considered unwanted forms (George 1972). We use the term error to refer to a systematic deviation from a selected norm or set of norms. According to Lennon (1991) an error is a linguistic form or combination of forms which in the same context and under similar conditions of production would, in all likelihood, not be produced by the speakers native speakers counterparts. On one hand, it was considered to be a sign of inadequacy of the teaching techniques, something negative which must be avoided, and on the other hand it was seen as a natural result of the fact that since by nature we cant avoid making errors, we should accept the reality and try to deal with them. The error-as-progress conception is based on the Chomskys idea that a child generates language through innate universal structures. So, using this symbolic code, one can have access to different pieces of knowledge not as something mechanically learned but as mentally constructed through try and error. The idea is now that the second language learners form hypotheses about the rules to be formed in the target language and then test them out against input data and modify them accordingly. There is an approach which concerns error as being the result of social-cognitive interaction. This means that the error implicitly carries a social norm as well as cognitive process. The error also carries a social and cultural component which makes it different in different societies. Cultural differences in the error Previous research has shown that cultural differences exist in the susceptibility of making fundamental attribution error: people from individualistic cultures are prone to the error while people from collectivistic cultures commit less of it (Miller, 1984). It has been found that there is a differential attention to social factors between independent peoples and interdependent peoples in both social and nonsocial contexts: Masuda and his colleagues (2004) in their cartoon figure presentation experiment showed that Japaneses judgments on the target characters facial expression are more influenced by surrounding faces than those of the Americans; whereas Masuda and Nisbett (2001) concluded from their underwater scenes animated cartoon experiment that Americans are also more likely than Japanese participants to mark references to focal objects (i.e. fish) instead of contexts (i.e. rocks and plants). These discrepancies in the salience of different factors to people from different cultu res suggest that Asians tend to attribute behavior to situation while Westerners attribute the same behavior to the actor. Consistently, Morris Peng (1994) found from their fish behavior attribution experiment that more American than Chinese participants perceive the behavior (e.g. an individual fish swimming in front of a group of fish) as internally rather than externally caused. One explanation for this difference in attribution lies in the way people of different cultural orientation perceive themselves in the environment. Particularly, Markus and Kitayama (1991) mentioned how (individualistic) Westerners tend to see themselves as independent agents and therefore prone themselves to individual objects rather than contextual details. in the second language teaching/ learning process the error has always been regarded as one of the most generally known approaches concerning the error throughout human history is to consider it a negative effect or result, even worth to be punished. According to Corder (1967): A learners errors then, provide evidence of the system of the language that he is using. They are significant in three different ways: first to the teacher, in that they tell him is he undertakes a systematic analysis, how far towards the goal the learner has progressed. Second, they provide the researchers with evidence of how language is learned or acquired. Third they are indispensible to the learner himself because he can regard the making of errors as a device used in order to learn. The sources of error might be psycholinguistic, sociolinguistic, epistemic or residing in the discourse structures. Richards(1971),when trying to identify the causes of competence errors he came up with three types of errors: interference errors, which reflect the use of elements from one language to the other, intralingual errors, subdivided into errors due to overgeneralization, or to ignorance of rules restriction, which is incomplete application of the rules, or finally due to the false concept hypothesis, which demonstrate the general characteristics of rule learning and third developmental errors when the learner builds hypothesis about the target language based on limited experience. Assuming a term hierarchy of errors, Burt and Kiparasky (1974) suggest that there is a difference between global and local errors. They say: Global mistakes are those that violate rules involving the overall structure of a sentence, the relations among constituent clauses, or, in a simple sentence, the relations among major constituents. Local mistakes cause trouble in a particular constituent, or in clause of a complex sentence. They claim that global errors are more serious and rank higher in the error hierarchy than local ones, and they should be corrected prior to all others in language classrooms. Accordingly, errors in tense and aspect are regarded as local errors. They may be minor errors, for they may not cause grave breakdowns in communication. However, they are extremely common mistakes among second language learners of English and very much worth investigating since tense and aspect represent one of the most essential parts of English grammar. Corder (1967) goes a step further to propose different terminologies for these two kinds of errors and stresses that we must make a clear distinction between mistakes and errors; the former refers to non-systematic performance errors of chance circumstances, whereas the latter can be defined as the systematic errors of the learner from which we are able to reconstruct his knowledge of the language to date. In the following discussion, the analysis focuses on competence errors: There are two major approaches to analyzing errors committed by a target language learner. Contrastive Analysis (CA), Error Analysis (EA). Theoretical base of CA lies in Behaviorist Learning Theory; while the EA is closely related with the emergence of Interlanguage Theory (Ellis, 2005) Behaviorist learning theory accounts of errors: The behaviorist learning theory illustrates the TL learning is a mechanical process of habit formation. Habits entail over-learning, which ensures that learning of new habits as a result of proactive inhibition. Thus, the challenge facing the L2 learner is to overcome the interference of L1 habits. Basing on the habit formation, contrastive analysis sought to identify the features of the L2 that differed from those of the L1 so that learners could be helped to form the new habits of the L2 by practicing them intensively. Most errors made by L2 learners were the result of differences between L1 and L2 structure. (Martin 1996) Interference, the CA insists, is the result of unfamiliarity with the rules of a TL and psychological causes, such as inadequate learning (Swan, 2001). Transfer can be positive or negative: linguistic features of the L1 that are similar to those of the TL will facilitate learning (positive transfer); those aspects of the L1 that are different to the TL grammatical and phonological system will hinder SLA and cause the learner to make numerous production errors(negative transfer). Thus difference between the L1 and L2 create learning difficulty which results in errors, while the similarities between them facilitate rapid and easy learning (Ellis, 1985 cited Corder). According to behaviorist learning theory, both types of transfer are the outcome of automatic and subconscious use of old habits in new learning situations (Dulay, Burt Krashen) Rod Ellis (1985) assesses, errors, according to the theory, were the result of non-learning, rather than wrong learning. By comparing the L1 with TL, differences could be identified and used to predict areas of potential errors. The idea of the error as an effect to be avoided has been especially supported by behaviorism, being considered an obstacle to language learning. To them error has been a symptom of ineffective teaching or as evidence of failure and they believed that when they occur they are to be remedied by provision of correct forms; that is to say, use of intensive drilling and over-teaching. It was also believed that interference takes place whenever there is a difference between native mother tongue and the target language. A hypothesis based on Lados suggestion in linguistic across cultures where he states in comparison between native and foreign language lies the key to ease all difficulties in foreign language learning (Lado, 1957) 2. Interlanguage (IL) theory accounts of errors (i) Selinker (1972) coined the term interlanguage to refer to the systematic knowledge of an L2 which is independent of both these learners L1 and the target language. The term has come to be used with different but related meanings: To refer to the series of interlocking systems which characterize acquisition To refer to the system that is observed at a single stage of development To refer to particular L1, L2 combinations. Other terms that refer to the same basic idea are approximate system and transitional competence. (ii) Interlanguage is the type of language produced by second and foreign language learners who are in the process of learning a language, whose errors are caused by several different processes. These include: Borrowing patterns from the mother tongue. Extending patterns from the target language Expressing meanings using the words and grammar which are already known from Richards, Jack et al (1992). (iii)Interlanguage refers to the separateness of a second language learners system, a system that has a structurally intermediate status between the native and target language. Interlanguage is neither the system of target language nor the system of the native language, but instead falls between the two; it is a system based upon the best attempt of learners to provide order and structure to the linguistic stimuli surrounding them. By gradual process of trial and error and hypothesis testing, learners slowly and tediously succeed in establishing closer and closer approximations to the system used by native speakers of the language. (iv)Rod Ellis (2005, 54) views Error Analysis as being based on emergence of IL theory, that is known to be used to explain effectively the errors committed in SLA processes. Slinker (1972) tried to find a way to explain the errors that some students make, have nothing to do with their foreign language; for example a Spanish speaker, an Arabic speaker and a Japanese speaker might all make the same mistake in English which was not related to their respective languages. According to Slinker, L2 learners go through a process of making and testing hypotheses about the target language. They begin with knowledge about language in general, gained from their native language, and move toward the target language. Bit by bit, they readjust their mental model of the new language, improving their communicative competency in that language. Successful hypotheses become mental constructions that correspond to the rules of the new language. Brown(1993) viewed ,truly successful students make the journ ey to a high level of competency in the target language, while less successful students become fossilized somewhere along the IL continuum. For around 35 years Selinker has viewed learners errors as evidence of positive efforts by the learner to learn a new language. This view of language learning allowed for the possibilities of learners making deliberate attempts to control their own learning and, along with theories of cognitive processes in language learning. Errors are indispensable to learners since the making of errors can be regarded as a device the learner uses in order to learn. A modern definition of language transfer is provided by Slinker (1992): language transfer is best thought of as a cover term for a whole class of behaviors, processes and constraints, each of which has to do with CLI (Cross Linguistic Influence), the influence and use of prior linguistic knowledge, usually but exclusively native language knowledge. Selinker (1992) pointed two highly significant con tributions that Corder made: that the errors of a learner, whether adult or child, are not random, but are in fact systematic and are not negative or interfering in any way with learning a TL but are, on the contrary, a necessary positive factor, indicative of testing hypothesis. In 1994 Gass and Slinker defined errors as red flags that provide evidence of the learners knowledge of the second language. The learners developing knowledge of second language may have characteristics of the learners native language, characteristics of the second language, and some characteristics which seem to be very general and tend to occur in all or most interlanguage systems. Interlanguages are systematic, but they are also dynamic, continually evolving as learners receive more input and revise their hypotheses about the second language.L2 learners process through an interlanguage, which is an independent knowledge of L1 and L2 system. Interlanguage Is systematic, because the learner selects the rul es systematically, learners bases plans on the rule system, in the same way as the native speaker bases on the internalized knowledge of L1 system. (iv)One of the crucial contributions of IL was its underlying assumption that the learners knowledge is integrated and systematically reorganized with previous knowledge of the native language. By a gradual process of trial-and-error or hypothesis testing, learners slowly and tediously succeed in establishing closer approximations to the system used by the native speaker of the language. The characteristics of IL are described by many researchers as follows: Permeable, in the sense that rules that constitute the learners knowledge at any one stage are not fixed, but are open to amendment(Ellis1985:50) Dynamic, in the sense that L2 learner slowly revises their variable interim systems to accommodate new hypothesis about the TL system. Systematic, in that L2 learners IL is rule-governed, that is, the learner bases his performance plans on his existing rule system much the same way as the native speaker bases his plans on his internalized knowledge of the L1 system. The variable shape of interlanguage The concept of interlanguage has had a major impact on the field of second language acquisition, studies on interlanguage focus on the linguistic and psychological aspects of second language acquisition research. I will first outline how the interlanguage assumption developed .since the interlanguage concept is not only important for the development of the students grammar system; I will then explore how it applies to other components of language. I will also focus on the consequences of the concept for the teacher and his work in the classroom. Before the 1960s language was not considered to be a mental phenomenon. Like other forms of human behavior language is learnt by processes of habit formation. A child learns his mother tongue by imitating the sounds and patterns he hears around him. By approval or disapproval, adults reinforce the childs attempts and lead the efforts to the correct forms. Under the influence of cognitive linguists this explanation of first language acquisitio n was criticized. Language cant be verbal behavior only since children are able to produce an infinite number of utterances that have never heard before. This creativity is only possible because a child develops a system of rules. A large number of studies have shown that children actually do construct their own rule system, which develops gradually until it corresponds to the system of the adults. There is also evidence that they pass through similar stages acquiring grammatical rules. Through the influence of cognitive linguists and first language acquisition research the notion developed that second language learners, too, could be viewed as actively constructing rules from the data they encounter and that they gradually adapt these rules in the direction of the target language. However wrong and inappropriate learners own language system, they are grammatical in their own terms, since they are a product of the learners own language system. This system gradually develops toward t he rule-system of the target language. The various shapes of the learners language competence are called interlanguage. This draws to the fact that the learners language system is neither that of his mother tongue nor that of the second language, but contains elements of both. Therefore, errors need not be seen as signs of failure only, but as evidence of the learners developing system. While the behaviorist approach led to teaching methods which use drills and consider errors as signs of failure, the concept of interlanguage liberated language teaching and paved the way for communicative teaching methods. Since errors are considered a reflection of the students temporary language system and therefore a natural part of the learning process, teachers could now use teaching activities which did not call for constant supervision of the students language. Group work and pair work became suitable means for language learning. A brief review of approaches to analyses of errors Contrastive Analysis (CA) Contrastive analysis is an approach generated from behaviorist learning theory. Through CA applied linguists sought to use the formal distinctions between the learners first and second languages to predict errors. The basic concept behind CA was that a structural picture of any language could be constructed which might then be used in direct comparison with the structural picture of another language. Through a process of mapping one system onto another, similarities and differences could be identified. Identifying the differences would lead to a better understanding of the problems that a learner of the particular L2 would face. (Corder , 1983). CA stresses the influence of mother tongue in learning a second language in phonological, morphological, lexical and syntactic levels. It holds that L2 would be affected by L1. Here, language is taken as a set of habits and learning as the establishment of new habits, a view sprung from behaviorism, under which langu age is essentially a system of habits. In the course of language learning, L1 learning habits will be transferred into L2 learning habits. Therefore, in the case of L1 transfer into L2, if structures in the MT have their corresponding structures in the TL and L1 habits can be successfully used in the L2, learners would transfer similar properties successfully used in the L2, learners would transfer similar properties successfully and that would result in positive transfer. Contrastively, in the case of negative transfer or interference, certain elements of the MT have no corresponding counterparts in the TL, L1 habits would cause errors in the L2 and learners would transfer inappropriate properties of L1. CA places the environment as the predominant factor in SLA, while learners are believed to play only a passive role in accepting the impositions of the environment. We must not forget that there are numbers of errors made by language learners seem to be unrelated to the learners na tive language. According to SLA researchers non-interference errors were more pervasive in learner performance than CA were ready to recognize. Dulay and Burt (1973) studied the errors made by Spanish-speaking children learning English as an L2 and claimed that all of the learners errors had collected, 85% were developmental (non-interference), 12% were unique and only 3% were results of L1 interference. Primary tenets of CA are: Prime cause of difficulty and error in foreign language learning is interference coming from the learners native language. Difficulties are chiefly due to differences between the two languages The greater the difference s, the more acute the learning difficulties will be The results of a comparison between the two languages are needed to predict th e difficulties and errors which will occur in learning the target language What needs to be taught is discovered by comparing the languages and subtracting what is common to them. (Corder, 1981) 3. Error analysis (EA) It is defined as the study of linguistics ignorance, the investigation of what people do not know and how they attempt to cope with their ignorance, by James (2001).Error analysis was first introduced by Fries (1945) and Lado (1957) who have claimed that foreign or second language learners errors could be predicted on the basis of the differences between the learners native and second languages. They have also suggested that where the aspects of the target language are similar to those of the learners native language, learning will be easy; otherwise, it will be difficult and second language learners are expected to make errors .The field of error analysis in SLA was established in the 1970s by S. P. Corder and colleagues. A widely-available survey can be found in chapter 8 of Brown (2000). Error analysis was an alternative to contrastive analysis, an approach influenced by behaviorism through which applied linguists sought to use the formal distinctions between the learners first an d second languages to predict errors. Error analysis showed that contrastive analysis was unable to predict a great majority of errors, although its more valuable aspects have been incorporated into the study of language transfer. A key finding of error analysis has been that many learner errors are produced by learners making faulty inferences about the rules of the new language. This is the examination of those errors committed by students in both the spoken and written medium. Corder, who has contributed enormously to EA, writes this: The study of error is part of the investigation of the process of language learning. In this respect it resembles methodologically the study of the acquisition of the mother tongue. It provides us with a picture of the linguistic development of a learner and may give us indications as the learning process. Error analysts distinguish between errors, which are systematic, and mistakes, which are not. Corder(1967) made use of Chomskys the competence versus performance distinction by associating errors with failures in competence and mistakes with failures in performance. In his view, a mistake occurs as the results of processing limitations rather than lack of competence. It signifies L2 learners failure of utilizing their knowledge of a TL rule. They often seek to develop a typology of errors. Error can be classified according to basic type: omissive, additive, substitutive or related to word order. They can be classified by how apparent they are: overt errors such as I angry are obvious even out of context, whereas covert errors are evident only in context. Closely related to this is the classification according to domain, the breadth of context which the analyst must examine, and extent, the breadth of the utterance which must be changed in order to fix the error. Errors may also be cl assified according to the level of language: phonological errors, vocabulary or lexical errors, syntactic errors, and so on. They may be assessed according to the degree to which they interfere with communication: global errors make an utterance difficult to understand, while local errors do not. In the above example, I angry would be a local error, since the meaning is apparent. From the beginning, error analysis was beset with methodological problems. In particular, the above typologies are problematic: from linguistic data alone, it is often impossible to reliably determine what kind of error a learner is making. Also, error analysis can deal effectively only with learner production (speaking and writing) and not with learner reception (listening and reading). Furthermore, it cannot account for learner use of communicative strategies such as avoidance, in which learners simply do not use a form with which they are uncomfortable. For these reasons, although error analysis is still used to investigate specific questions in SLA, the quest for an overarching theory of learner errors has largely been abandoned. In the mid-1970s, Corder and others moved on to a more wide-ranging approach to learner language, known as interlanguage. Error analysis is closely related to the study of error treatment in language teaching. Today, the study of errors is particularly relevant for focus on form teaching methodology. EA emphasizes on the significance of errors in learners IL system, Brown (1994) may be, carried out directly for pedagogic purposes. Carl James (1998) viewed, EA developed out of the belief that errors indicate the learners stage of language learning and acquisition.th learner is seen as an active participant in the development of hypotheses regarding the rules of the target language just as a young child learning the first language. Errors are considered to be evidence of the learners strategy as he or she builds competence in the target language. These errors are defined as global which inhibit understanding and local which do not interfere with communication. Error analysis has been criticized as being an inefficient tool for studying the way second language learners develop their target language. It is argued that error analysis deals with the learners productive competence rather than the receptive one, and it is also an imperfect instrument for categorizing errors and explaining them. In the book Error and Interlanguage written by Pit Corder, he stated that various classifications of these error systems have been developed by error analysis researchers, three of which can be helpful for the teacher and are as follows. Pre-systematic; errors occur before the language learner has realized any system for classifying items being learned; the learner can neither correct nor explain this type of error. Systematic; errors occur after the learner has noticed a system and error consistently occurs; learner can explain but not correct the error. This classification relies on three major groups: (1) interference errors; (2) intralingual errors; (3)development errors. Interference errors are caused by the influence of the native language, in presumably those areas where the languages differ markedly. Intralingual errors originate with the structure to TL itself. The complexity of language encourages over-generalization, incomplete application of rules, and the failure to learn conditions for rule application. Development errors reflect the students attempt to make hypotheses about the language from the native language. Post-systematic; errors occur when learner is consistent in his or her recognition of systems; can explain and correct the error. The following steps are distinguished in conducting an EA: collection of a sample of learner language; identification of errors; explanation of errors; error evaluation (Ellis cited in 2005) Richards (1971) focused on the intralingual and developmental errors observed in the acquisition of English as a second language and further classified them into four categories: (i) Overgeneralization; covering instances where the learners create a deviant structure on the basis of his experience of other structure of the TL. (ii)Ignorance of the rule restriction, occurring as a result of failure to observe the restrictions or existing structures (iii) Incomplete application of rules, arising when the learners fail to fully develop a certain structure required to produce acceptable sentences (iv) False concepts hypothesized, deriving from faulty comprehension of distinctions in the TL. from the analyses of errors to the practice of error correction We know that in traditional classroom instruction is laid on accuracy, errors frequently corrected because the teacher thinks the error as a thorn in his/her flesh. Yet with the understanding of IL theory, the role of error correction has changed. Errors are considered natural products in language learning and in fact reflect the modes of learners developing system. What are the sources and causes of Errors? The following factors are identified as the source and causes of Errors Mother tongue interference Wilkins (1972) observes: When learning a foreign language an individual already knows his mother tongue, and it is this which he attempts to transfer. The transfer may prove to be justified because the structure of the two languages is similar-in that case we get positive transfer or facilitation- or may prove unjustified because the structure of the two languages are different- in that case we get negative transfer- or interference. Loan Words

Special Education Essay -- Educacional Policies, Non Discrimination

According to the democratic theory postulated by Amy Gutmann, citizens should be entitled to make rules that govern educational policies at national levels. These policies should reflect the ongoing scrutiny of the liberal principles of nonrepression (education may not proscribe deliberation pertaining to any particular set of rational ideas) and nondiscrimination (parents nor educators may espouse practices that may deter children from partaking in a democratic education). Importantly, the discretional power of these citizens should be constrained by those fundamental principles of nondiscrimination and nonrepression. The realm of special education and its historical background in conjunction with the many facets of nondiscrimination should be the focal point. Thus, it is my hope that this paper will give students, parents, and educators the knowledge and insight into the issues i.e. court cases, which surround nondiscrimination and its key ideologies in the domain of special education reform. To understand how special education reform emerged, we need to bethink some of the first federal laws of the United States that were designed to assist people with disabilities. Specifically, there was a federal law passed by the Fifth Congress dating back to 1798. This law authorized a Maine Hospital Service later known as the Public Health Service to bestow medical services to disabled sailors (Braddock, 1987). Unfortunately, up until World War II there were only a paltry number of federal laws able to assist persons with disabilities. Only war veterans with service-related disabilities were allowed assistance (NICHY, 1997). This purported that, for nearly all of United States history, institutions i.e. schools were permitted to... ...cided in its ruling that all students including those with disabilities be provided a publicly supported education. The court also adjured that the board of education allocate its funds equitably so that all children receive a free and appropriate education. Lastly, the court ordered the board to provide due process safeguards in the event the school attempt to alter a child’s educational status i.e. reassignment, transfers, suspension, and expulsion. In response to the seminal cases elucidated above, specifically PARC and Mills and impending litigation, Congress began passing new laws to further augment the rights of those students with disabilities. These new laws, most notably, utilized many of the legal principles that were integrated in those preceding suits insofar that students would be entitled a free and appropriate public education. Special Education Essay -- Educacional Policies, Non Discrimination According to the democratic theory postulated by Amy Gutmann, citizens should be entitled to make rules that govern educational policies at national levels. These policies should reflect the ongoing scrutiny of the liberal principles of nonrepression (education may not proscribe deliberation pertaining to any particular set of rational ideas) and nondiscrimination (parents nor educators may espouse practices that may deter children from partaking in a democratic education). Importantly, the discretional power of these citizens should be constrained by those fundamental principles of nondiscrimination and nonrepression. The realm of special education and its historical background in conjunction with the many facets of nondiscrimination should be the focal point. Thus, it is my hope that this paper will give students, parents, and educators the knowledge and insight into the issues i.e. court cases, which surround nondiscrimination and its key ideologies in the domain of special education reform. To understand how special education reform emerged, we need to bethink some of the first federal laws of the United States that were designed to assist people with disabilities. Specifically, there was a federal law passed by the Fifth Congress dating back to 1798. This law authorized a Maine Hospital Service later known as the Public Health Service to bestow medical services to disabled sailors (Braddock, 1987). Unfortunately, up until World War II there were only a paltry number of federal laws able to assist persons with disabilities. Only war veterans with service-related disabilities were allowed assistance (NICHY, 1997). This purported that, for nearly all of United States history, institutions i.e. schools were permitted to... ...cided in its ruling that all students including those with disabilities be provided a publicly supported education. The court also adjured that the board of education allocate its funds equitably so that all children receive a free and appropriate education. Lastly, the court ordered the board to provide due process safeguards in the event the school attempt to alter a child’s educational status i.e. reassignment, transfers, suspension, and expulsion. In response to the seminal cases elucidated above, specifically PARC and Mills and impending litigation, Congress began passing new laws to further augment the rights of those students with disabilities. These new laws, most notably, utilized many of the legal principles that were integrated in those preceding suits insofar that students would be entitled a free and appropriate public education.

Roy Wilkins and the NAACP: A Life Dedicated to the Civil Rights Movemen

The life of Roy Wilkins is a story of one of the greatest civil rights leaders the United States has ever known. He was an underdog that came from poor beginnings to become a leader of the NAACP, for twenty-two years. A true example of what someone can do if they put their minds to it, no matter what color they are. To begin the journey through Roy Wilkins life, we will start with a little biographical information. Roy was born in St. Louis, Mo. On August 30, 1901, as the grandson of a slave. His mother died when he was three years old, so he and his sister were sent to live with their Aunt and Uncle in St. Paul, Mn. There they raised him in a low-income, integrated community. Although he was poor, he did attend integrated public schools in the city. After graduating high school, Roy worked his way through the University of Minnesota, where he majored in sociology and minored in journalism. He had various jobs to put himself through college. He worked as a redcap (a baggage porter), waiter, stockyard laborer, and a night editor. While in college he worked as the night editor (to help pay his way through) of the Minnesota Daily, the school paper and a black weekly, the St. Paul Appeal. After working all these odd jobs he managed to put himself through college. After graduation, he took a position as a journalist for the Kansas City Call, a black weekly paper. He stayed there for seven years, acting as managing editor from 1923 until 1931. Although the job at the Call was good, he left it in 1931 to join the NAACP as Assistant Executive Secretary, under Walter White, who was Executive Secretary at the time. In his new job, his first assignment was to investigate discrimination on a federally funded flood project in Mississippi, in 1932. Due to his findings of discrimination at that project, he was successful in getting Congress to take action to stop its practices there. After a couple of years as Whites assistant, in 1934 Wilkins seceded W. E. B. DuBois as editor of the NAACPï€ ½s magazine, the Crisis. In that same year, he suffered the first arrest of his civil rights career. During a protest at the Attorney Generalï€ ½s office in Washington, D.C., they were there protesting to get the National Conference of Crime to add ï   Lynching ï â‚¬ to their agenda of topics. He served as a consultant to the ... ...eir career after his. In a turbulent world, his non-violent means of gaining rights for blacks was a calming one. Works Cited: African-American History. ï  Roy Wilkins (1901-1981).ï â‚¬ [http://www.triadntr.net/~rdavis/wilkins.htm](Mar. 27, 2000). Altman, Susan. The Encyclopedia of African-American Heritage. New York: Facts on File, Inc.,, 1997. Collierï€ ½s Encyclopedia. New York: P. F. Collier, 1996. Encyclopedia Americana, International Version. Danbury, Conn.: Grolier Inc., 1999. Encyclopedia of Black America. ed., W. Agustus Low, ass. ed., Virgil A. Clift. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1981. Hornsby, Alton, Jr. Chronology of African American History, 2nd edition. From 1492 to the Present. Detroit: Gale Research, Inc., 1997. Ploski, Henry A. and Williams, James. editors, The Negro Almanac, A Reference work on the African American, 5th edition. Detroit: Gale Research, Inc., 1989. The African American Almanac, 7th edition. ed., L. Mpho Mabanda. Detroit: Gale Research, Inc., 1997. The McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of World Biography. New York: McGraw-Hill Inc., 1973. The World Book Encyclopedia. Chicago: World Book, Inc., 2000.

Aluminum: The 13th Element on the Periodic Table Essay

One of the many elements on the periodic table is Aluminum. Aluminum is the 13th element, and it is located in period two and group thirteen. Aluminums symbol is Al and it has an electron configuration of [Ne] 3s2 3p1. Aluminum also has an atomic mass of 26.982 and its atomic number is 13. This element was discovered by Hans Christian Oersted in the year of 1825, and was named by the English chemist Sir Humphry Davy (Helmenstine, 2012). Its name ‘Aluminum’ came from the Latin words ‘alumen’ or ‘alum’, which is an astringent and dyeing mordant. Originally, Davy called it â€Å"Alumium’ but the publishers later changed it to Aluminum, and that’s how it remains in the United States (N/A, n.d.). Aluminum is a tin-white metal which melts at 640 °C and boils at 2,327-2,450 °C (N/A, 2012). It is very light and has a density of 2.68g. It is both ductile and malleable, making it stiff and strong, and with frequent annealing it can be r olled into thin foil (N/A, 1996-2012). It is a good conductor of heat and electricity, and it is a solid in its standard state. One of Aluminums chemical properties is that in moist air, it combines slowly with oxygen to form aluminum oxide. The aluminum oxide forms a very thin, whitish coating on the aluminum metal (N/A, n.d.). This element is also a fairly active metal. It reacts with many hot acids and with alkalis. Aluminum also reacts quickly with hot water, and in powdered form, it catches fire quickly when exposed to a flame (N/A, 1996-2012). Back then, the Ancient Greeks and Romans used alum as an astringent, for medicinal purposes, and as a mordant in dyeing (N/A, 2012). Today, it is used in kitchen utensils, exterior decorations, and thousands of industrial applications. The uses of the element can vary from being kitchen foil, to being used to create planes and trains. Aluminum is also used in electrical transmission lines because of its light weight, and its alloys are used in the construction of aircraft and rockets (Helmenstine, 2012). Aluminum is also used to make compounds, and some of the many are Aluminum Chloride, Aluminum Hydroxide, and Aluminum Phosphate. Lastly, something very interesting and unique about Aluminum is that it is the most abundant metal in the Earth’s crust (8.1%), although it is not found free in nature (N/A, 2012).